Research on motivation pdf

Can be answered with ease and confidence. Say, how the consumers receive the new product, package advertising message and the like where surveys cross tabulations and analysis can help to find the answers.

By merely asking consumers why they like or dislike a product or an advertisement or a package, one cannot get satisfactory answers. The answers differ widely and are misleading very often. These answers are misleading not because people are dishonest, but merely because they do not know really why? Wrong or unbelievable answers are given because of two possible reasons:. Conventional research does not answer this but motivation research does.

It is the psycho-analysis that helps in overcoming the inability or the reluctance of people to tell why they like or dislike a product or a service.

This is known as penetrating below the surface to reach sub-consciousness. The relations between a consumer and a product are partly conscious and partly sub- conscious. Precisely, motivation research is the art of finding out why? Without asking why? Observe him at parties and get-togethers and you will find that he is after a woman attractively clothed with gleaning make-up appealing to his hidden motives.

Thus, motivation research is something that goes beneath the line. Thus, it is an attempt to market below the line. The techniques used in motivation research are of two types namely, Projective Techniques and Depth Interviews.

These projective techniques represent the test conducted to establish the personalities of the respondents and their reactions to product media advertisement package product design and the like. These tests are derived from clinical psychology and work on the postulation that if an individual is placed in an ambiguous situation, he is guided by his own perceptions to describe the situation.

They often provide, an insight into the motives that lie below the level of consciousness and when the respondent is likely to rationalize his motives consciously or unconsciously; his responses tend to reflect his own attitudes and beliefs by indirection and discretion; they are his own perceptions and interpretations to the situation to which he is exposed.

Under this test, the respondent is presented with a picture or series of pictures of a scene or scenes involving people and objects associated with goods or services in questions. These are unstructured, doubtful in action and very often neutral giving no expression or motions. The respondent is to study the picture or the pictures and construct a story.

His narrations or readings are interpreted by a skilled analyst. Thus, the picture may be of a young man scribbling on a piece of a paper. Here, the respondent is to read as to whether the person in picture is writing. If so what? For whom? And why? And so on. Sentence completion tests are designed to discover emotional responses of the respondent. It is the easiest, most useful and reliable test to get the correct information in an indirect manner. The respondent is asked to complete the sentence given.

I do not like red, brown and black colours because…………………….. In case of men, these questions may be. The evidence has led many sport psychologists to conclude that being task involved better enables participants to manage motivation in the sport experience e.

Within BPNT, Deci and Ryan proposed that individuals have innate and fundamental psychological needs that individuals seek to satisfy in order to achieve psychological adjustment, internalization, well-being, and personal growth. They propose that individuals will develop and function most effectively when their immediate psychosocial environment provides support for their basic psychological needs.

Three basic psychological needs have been identified, namely, the need for autonomy, the need for competence, and the need for relatedness. The need for relatedness is linked to the perception of experiencing meaningful interactions to significant others in a given context Milyavskaya et al.

When all three needs are satisfied within an activity, individuals will feel a high degree of autonomous and self-determined motivation. However, lower levels of perceived autonomy have been linked to ineffective goal striving; impaired performance and persistence; increased feelings of stress, anxiety, self-criticism; vulnerability to persuasion, as well as exhaustion and burnout Van den Broeck et al.

These different reasons for being involved in an activity are typically placed on a continuum of autonomy ranging from high to low self-determination. The assumption is that it is the perceived incentive for the initiation of a behavior that influences subsequent levels of motivation. The most autonomous motivation regulation is labeled intrinsic motivation. An activity is intrinsically motivated and autonomous when it is freely experienced and self-endorsed.

Intrinsic motivation emanates from the target behavior itself with the locus of causality being perceived as internal. However, some actions can be motivated by external sources of regulations that are not necessarily endorsed by the self. In this case people do not feel as autonomous, perceiving an external locus of causality deCharms, Behaviors are perceived as being extrinsically motivated when individuals perform an activity because they value its associated outcomes more than the activity itself.

The first extrinsic regulation is termed integrated regulation. Executed volitionally, integrated extrinsically motivated behaviors differ from intrinsically motivated actions in that they are aimed at obtaining personally important outcomes. An externally regulated individual typically engages in the behavior to obtain something e.

Finally, individuals can also behave in some contexts without any motivational reasons for participating in the activity. Motivated individuals lack intention to participate in a given activity, and they do not perceive contingencies between their behavior and achievement outcomes. They are entirely lacking any form of self-determination, they have no relationship to any achievement goal, and their somewhat automatized behavior is solely controlled by the environment.

Intrinsic motivation is purely self-determined as it is defined through being involved in an activity for its own sake, because it is interesting and satisfying Ryan, Identified regulation is an autonomous form of motivational regulation as it reflects to what degree an athlete values sport participation.

On the motivational continuum, these three autonomous regulations are followed by three less self-determined forms of motivation. Two of them are often seen as controlled motivational regulations, namely, introjected and extrinsic regulations. Amotivation has been interpreted as a separate construct, outside of the continuum. While autonomous motivation refers to athletes feeling self-determined and involved because their sport is personally important or interesting Williams et al.

In an attempt to further simplify the use and the interpretation of the theoretical framework, some researchers have used a single score Self-Determination Index SDI; e. Some researchers e. Lemyre and colleagues have also reported that this approach has important limitations as it collapses regulations with potentially very different effects on how individuals interpret the reasons for participating in different activities.

Additionally, incorporating the amotivation subscale to the SDI may seem counterintuitive as it refers to the absence of regulation and should perhaps be interpreted independently from the continuum. Recent studies investigating changes in quality of motivation over time have adopted this approach with advanced statistical analyses. SDT states that intrinsic motivation and more self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation identified, integrated regulations are associated with adaptive emotional, cognitive, and behavioral consequences.

Even though some researchers e. That is, the quality of motivation of participants in sports and other performance contexts will often reflect a motivational profile based on a combination of self-determined and controlled forms of motivation, also leading to positive outcomes. Hypothetically, the presence of certain self-determined reasons for engaging in activity may neutralize the negative influence of other controlled reasons for participation, while the presence of these regulations may significantly add to the motivation and the determination of an athlete.

In a study by DiBartolo, Frost, Chang, LaSota, and Grills , the authors state that individuals in a performance context pursuing challenging goals and high, personal standards may experience different levels of self-determined motivation because of perceiving these goals and standards of performance as a challenge or a required level of performance necessary to attain or to maintain self-worth.

The assumption is that intrinsic motivation translates well in a challenge-seeking state, as the athlete is able to maintain intrinsic interest for the activity. In contrast, if those high, personal standards are in order to maintain or attain a sense of self-worth, it may hinder self-determined behavior. Research in this area has suggested that athlete burnout is a result of a negative shift toward a less self-determined quality of motivation and a continuous experience of stress.

This is due to personal factors such as maladaptive forms of passion and perfectionism or situational factors such as parental pressure or physical overtraining Gould, ; Lemyre et al. Athletes who suffer from burnout will typically show signs of demotivation because of the reduced sense of accomplishment and devaluation of the sport experience in general Lemyre et al.

Burnout seems to share many commonalities with amotivation. Amotivation reflects a state where an athlete who was originally showing great motivation for an activity experienced a gradual deterioration of the quality of his or her motivation over time, often in the face of adversity and an inability to achieve important goals.

The athlete ends up by feeling that there is no relationship between the investment in the activity and the return for this investment Lemyre et al. These findings support the use of Self-Determination Theory to understand better the factors leading to maladaptive achievement outcomes in sports such as burnout.

In addition, Quested and Duda found that promoting autonomous motivation is relevant to reduce the risk of burnout in vocational dancers. In one of their articles Bentzen et al. The process from the individual interacting with the environment to outcomes is described as the SDT-process model Ryan et al. The proposed sequential development model has four important components where 1 the perceived environment predicts, 2 psychological need satisfaction predicts, 3 the quality of motivation finally predicting, 4 and outcomes Bentzen et al.

Following this framework, Bentzen and colleagues a investigated changes in motivation indices relative to burnout symptoms in high-performance coaches over the course of a sport season. The authors found that lower levels of need satisfaction in coaches as well as the experience of having their needs thwarted led to maladaptive outcomes.

They also found that high levels of autonomous motivation had a preventive effect on the development of exhaustion in elite-level coaches. Their research underlined the importance of a performance environment promoting the development and maintenance of autonomous motivation in individuals to ensure performance and well-being, as well as preventing exhaustion.

As is clear to the reader from the preceding, there are some remarkable similarities in the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional outcomes predicted by SDT and AGT. Being task involved and self-determined have been consistently associated with desirable cognitive-, affective-, and achievement-striving responses. It does not matter whether we do it through enhancing socialization experiences so that we encourage the individual to be task involved or autonomous or the person is naturally task involved through their disposition to be task oriented AGT or to satisfy basic needs SDT.

However, the theories do have some basic differences. SDT argues that the person is motivated to satisfy the basic needs of competence, relatedness, and autonomy. It is striving to satisfy these basic needs that stoke the motivational engine. Conversely, AGT argues that we are motivated to achieve because we wish to demonstrate competence: to others and ourselves.

We learn through our socialization experiences that the demonstration of competence is a valued attribute in society. There is a long history in psychology of how individuals are socialized to recognize that the demonstration of competence is a valued social attribute e.

AGT assumes that the demonstration of competence is a learned attribute; therefore, it is nurtured by socialization processes. Thus, whether we choose SDT or AGT, it becomes an issue of how one believes the psyche functions: Do we have basic needs that drive the human organism, or is the human organism intentional and rational and makes decisions based on how one thinks things work in achievement settings?

A second major difference in the two theories is in terms of scope. SDT argues that all people need to experience the basic psychological nutrients of competence, relatedness, and autonomy for effective functioning, psychological health, well-being, and the development of personality and cognitive structures. The degree to which the three basic needs are satisfied or thwarted has positive and negative influence on a wide range of outcomes, including motivation. AGT, on the other hand, is a more restricted theory dealing with achievement-motivated behavior in pursuit of a specified goal that is valued and meaningful to the individual.

A third difference is in the arguments pertaining to the relevance of the social context to affect achievement behavior. According to SDT, social factors influence human motivation through the mediating variables of autonomy, competence, and relatedness Vallerand, On the other hand, AGT focuses on how perceptions of the extant criteria of success and failure that create either a mastery or a performance climate, which in turn interacts with dispositional goals to influence affect, behavior, and cognition in achievement contexts Ntoumanis, Specifically, both conceptual frameworks suggest that intrinsic motivation is nurtured in environments that promote self-mastery and choice.

On the other hand, intrinsic motivation is thwarted, or supplanted by ego involvement, in environments in which normative comparison operates and rewards are provided contingent on performance. There are similarities in achievement goals. Achievement goals are relevant to SDT, and researchers have looked at the influence of what is termed goal content intrinsic vs. SDT differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic goal content.

It is assumed to lead to adaptive outcomes. This is very similar to the goal of task involvement in AGT, which is associated with learning, personal growth, and mastery. Extrinsic goal content is associated to reasons such as financial success, status, and physical appearance.

Extrinsic goal content increases the risk for an athlete to experience maladaptive participation outcomes e. This is very similar to the goal of ego involvement in AGT that is associated with status relative to others and the demonstration of normative competence.

The conceptual rationale behind the achievement goals is, of course, quite different. In a study of elite athletes, Solberg and Halvari found that athletes experiencing autonomy support from their coach were more likely to have autonomous and intrinsic reasons for their goals and reported more positive emotional well-being.

This is similar to the research findings with the mastery motivational climate in AGT e. All motivation theories over time have a focus on competence, in one form or another. SDT has been criticized for not providing a well-articulated and internally consistent conceptualization of the role of competence in maintaining autonomous motivation Butler, According to Butler, SDT has not sufficiently distinguished between different kinds of competence goals or the relation between the perception of autonomy and different conceptions of ability.

It may be argued that SDT has contributed more to the understanding of how social contexts may foster intrinsic motivation by the support of autonomy instead of clarifying how these contexts may contribute to continuing motivation by promoting either one rather than another conception of ability Butler, This is supported by Spinath and Steinmayr who argue also that different aspects of competence are important. The distinction is not captured with measurement of the need for competence.

On the other hand, AGT is more concerned with how thoughts and perceptions energize motivated behavior. The focus is on how being task or ego involved influences task difficulty choices and sustained achievement striving.

When individuals are task involved, their motivation to perform a task derives from intrinsic properties and not from the expected outcomes of the task. When intrinsically motivated, people do an activity because the behavior in itself is interesting as well as spontaneously satisfying.

Being task involved indicates that the individual strives for mastery, while being intrinsically motivated makes the mastery a reward in itself. Therefore, task involvement facilitates autonomous behavior as well as the need for competence Ntoumanis, However, an attempt has been made: Duda proposed a hierarchical reconceptualization of the motivational climate in sport, specifically for children, by combining the two conceptual frameworks.

When coaches are empowering, they will be autonomy supportive, mastery involving, and support social relatedness. Coaches will promote self-referenced criteria of success when assessing competence and will satisfy basic needs in the participants.

When coaches are disempowering, they will be controlling and use performance criteria of success. Coaches will promote other referenced criteria of success when assessing competence and be less concerned with satisfying basic needs.

A recent study would suggest probably not: Using a Bayesian approach, Solstad and colleagues in review failed to confirm the hierarchical nature of the coach-created motivational climate as proposed by Duda. Solstad and colleagues agree with Marsh and colleagues who argued that the two theories are based on different conceptual arguments, which make it inappropriate to combine them.

The empowerment concepts are proposed to integrate the theories, but in fact they make a descriptive and pragmatic case to use both theories to maximize the likelihood of creating a supportive, task-involving, autonomous-coaching climate for the benefit of the children in the sport experience. Future attempts to create a unified theory need to address developing unique energizing constructs because, at the present time, both theories maintain their own unique energizing mechanisms. However, that does not mean that the children do not benefit from the pragmatic inclusion of both theories as argued cogently by Duda; they clearly do Solstad, Both theories recognize the importance of personal variables and the impact of the perceived context on motivation for sustained achievement behavior.

Which theory should we use? Well, that clearly depends on your understanding of how the psyche works. Do you believe that satisfying basic needs drive the human organism? If so, SDT is for you. Do you believe that the human organism is rational and intentional and is driven by how one perceives the social context or believes in trying to demonstrate either task or ego-involved competence? Then AGT is for you. SDT is a more global theory of personality; AGT is limited to achievement tasks that are valued by the person.

It is a choice, but the predictions of both theories are remarkably similar. However, it would seem that trying to integrate the theories is not viable at this time Marsh et al. But these climates may be interdependent and may thus exist simultaneously, certainly within AGT Ames, a , b , c. An interesting line of inquiry for future research may be to investigate further the interplay between the opposing climates.

For example, Buch and colleagues found a positive relationship between perceived mastery climate and increased intrinsic motivation only when combined with low levels of perceived performance climate.

An important task for future research would be to attempt to clarify what may represent a beneficial balance between mastery autonomous and performance controlling climates in sport and performance. Another interesting direction could be to question whether being task involved is beneficial for everyone.

This research showed also that elite athletes seem to benefit from being high in both task and ego orientations. It may be that individuals who are simply high in task orientation may not function well in a highly competitive environment. Given that mastery autonomous and performance controlling climates have such profound influence on achievement behavior, future research should address what may be the crucial antecedents of such climates in sport. This would also inform coaching behaviors.

As an example, one study has addressed how leadership style e. Other possible and important antecedents may exist. Some researchers have questioned whether IPTs can operate at the situational level. Although IPTs have been found to be temporarily changeable interventions , the fact that IPTs initially are operationalized as relatively stable dispositions may confuse an operationalization at the situational level.

Perhaps a better and more theoretically sound approach could be to investigate the predictive value of the perceived motivational climate as operationalized by Nicholls and Ames c. One study did test this showing that a performance climate induced a fixed mindset of ability, while a mastery climate generated a growth mindset in physical education students Ommundsen, c.

This could also facilitate an answer to how IPTs are socialized in ongoing interactions in various achievement domains. Nicholls was interested in the academic domain, but the same is certainly true in the sport domain.

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Sign in with your library card Please enter your library card number. Search within Motivation in Sport and Performance. Glyn C. Roberts , Glyn C. Nerstad Christina G. Nicolas Lemyre P. Keywords motivation achievement orientations basic needs motivational climate behavior change mindsets Achievement Goal Theory Self-Determination Theory. Introduction We can never have equality of achievement, but we can have equality of motivation : That was the mission of John Nicholls Understanding the Process of Motivation Motivation theories are on a continuum ranging from deterministic to mechanistic to organismic to cognitive for a more extensive treatment of motivation theories, see Ford, State of Involvement The two conceptions of ability thereby become the source of the criteria by which individuals assess success and failure.

The Research Evidence Two strategies are used to determine the goal orientation profiles high in each, high in one and low in the other, and low in each. The Motivational Climate: Mastery and Performance Criteria One of the most powerful aspects of AGT is that it incorporates not only the individual difference variables of task and ego orientations, growth and entity orientations, but also the situational determinants of task and ego involvement.

The Research Evidence The extant literature in sport suggests that the creation of a mastery motivational climate is likely to be important in optimizing positive i. Now let us discuss Self-Determination Theory and its principal advocates. Research Evidence SDT states that intrinsic motivation and more self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation identified, integrated regulations are associated with adaptive emotional, cognitive, and behavioral consequences.

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Need is the base for motivation which is a kind of mental feeling in an individual that he needs something. The individual tries to overcome this by engaging himself in a behaviour through which he satisfies his needs. This is goal directed behaviour and it leads to goal fulfillment and individual succeeds in fulfilling his needs and thereby overcoming his tension in the favourable environment.

Behaviour ends the moment tension is released. However satisfaction of one needs leads to feeling of another need, either same need after some time or different need and goal directed behaviour goes on. Thus goal directed behaviour is a continuous process.

However if the need is not satisfies because of some reasons, the person may feel frustration which can be defined as accumulation of tension due to non fulfillment of needs. At this stage the individual will try to modify his behavior to eliminate factors for non fulfillment of his needs. For example, putting more force need satisfactions. Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes.

According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. If there are deficits on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit. Essentially, if you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently we have the second level, which awakens a need for security. After securing those two levels, the motives shift to the social sphere, the third level.

Psychological requirements comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization. Only unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not. The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show. Herzberg's two-factor Hygiene —Motivation theory Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, they don't lead to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction.

Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the products of two separate factors: motivating factors satisfiers and hygiene factors dissatisfiers. Some motivating factors satisfiers were: Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth. Some hygiene factors dissatisfiers were: company policy, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, job security, and personal life. The traditional view, known as Theory X holds people have inherent dislike of work.

Although workers may view it as a necessity, they will avoid it whenever possible. In this view most people prefer to be directed and to avoid responsibility. As a result, the work is of secondary importance, and managers should push employees to work. Theory Y is more optimistic. It assumes that work is as natural as play or rest. In theory Y people want to work and can derive a great of satisfaction from work. In this view people have the capacity to accept- even seek- responsibility and to apply imagination, inequality, ingenuity, and creativity to organizational problems.

This theory posits that there are three groups of core need — existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs is those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification.

Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. Maslow's categories are broken down into many different parts and there are a lot of needs. The ERG categories are broader and cover more than just certain areas. As a person grows, the existence, relatedness, and growth for all desires continue to grow.

All these needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self- actualization. Self-Determination theory Propounded by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. SDT identifies three needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and growth: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. These three psychological needs motivate the self to initiate specific behaviour and mental nutriments that are essential for psychological health and well-being.

When these needs are satisfied, there are positive consequences, such as well-being and growth, leading people to be motivated, productive and happy. Goal-Setting Theory Goal setting theory focuses on the process of setting goals themselves. According to psychologist Edwin Locke the natural human inclination to set and strive for goals is useful only if the individual both understands and accepts a particular goal.

Furthermore workers will not be motivated if they do not possess goal and the skills needed to achieve a goal. According to goal setting theory, individual are motivated when they behave in ways that move them to certain clear goals, that they accept and can reasonably expect to attain.

Research shows that when goals are specific and challenging, they function more effectively as motivating factors in both individual and group performance Research also indicate that motivation and commitment are higher when employees participate in the setting goals.